Social Cognition : Persuasion

Theory of planned behavior
Justifies why you don't do what you're supposed to do but does something else you want to do instead.

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Personality!
High self-monitors behave in a less attitude consistent matter.
Low self-monitors behave more consistently.

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Behavioral Influence on Attitude;

Cognitive dissonance
Attitude -> Behavior or Behavior -> Attitude
because they are different, and this theory suggests we want them to be the consistent. Inconsistencies lead to an 'uncomfortable state of heightened arousal' - Cognitive Dissonance

May lead to change in behavior, attitudinal change or people may reduce their dissonance via external justifications.

Self-perception theory
behavior -> Attitude
An outsider's view of ourselves.
We gain an understanding about ourselves by observing how we behave and infer.

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Both explains how inconsistencies between behavior and attitudes

-Cognitive Dissonance
Attitude and behavior at odds leading to discomfort

-Self-perception Theory
Attitudes are shaped by how we act

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Bi-relational link:

works both ways, ie we play chess so we believe it will improve our performance, hence a belief that chess will enhance school performance.

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Two paths of Persuasion

Central Route - requires a great deal of central thought and depends on quality of arguments. Works only on the significant and credibility and presentation of the argument is essential.

Peripheral Route - Less obvious way, using subtle inferences via famous/glamorous people.

Factors affecting persuasion :

1)Source
Expert / Non-expert
Attractive/ Unattractice
Rate of Speech

2)Message
Evoke emotions?
Subliminal?

3)Audience
Those who enjoy thinking like sound and logical arguments.
THose more image conscious would be more affected via the peripheral route.

Social Cognition : Factors Affecting Attitude-Behavior Link

1)Attitude Strength
Direct or indirect?

2)Accessibility
How easily it comes to mind?

3)Specificity
General or specific concept?

4)Ambivalence
Mixed feelings?

5)Social situation
Affects us freely expressing our true attitudes

Social Cognition : Attitude Formation

Factors influencing attitude:

1)Mere/indirect exposure
Formed in a less personal way. (Advertisers)
Too much exposure can have negative effect
Must initially be neutral/not overexposed

2)Direct experience
Actually experiencing something, forming attitude towards it.
Very powerful.
Important in traumatic/frightening experiences.
Often becomes strongly held, affects behavior
More likely to seek out information that confirms these attitudes
Resistant to change

3)Learning
Learned via association, reward/punishment or imitation.

Association:
Associating object with positive or negative feelings
Powerful impact on formation of stereotypes
Researchers suggest repeated association of neutral with positive/negative leads to same feelings

Reward/Punishment:
Adopting attitudes to gain favor

Imitation(modeling):
Observing and copying those we admire

Social Cognition : Function of Attitudes

1)Adaptive Function
-adapt to environment
-maximize rewards/ behave to reach goals
-minimize punishment by avoiding behaviors which dont reach goals

2)Self-expressive Function
-Give meaning to life
-Tell others about who we are
-Part of self-concept

3)Ego-defensive Function
-Protects self-esteem
-Shields us from negative things in our lives

4)Knowledge Function
-Allows us to make our world more predictable and familiar by organizing perceptions/beliefs about the social world.

Social Cognition

Attitude
learnt evaluative reactions

Positive, negative and ambivalent attitudes.

Affective Component-
how we feel that reflects our feelings

Behavioral Component-
Action

Cognitive Component-
Beliefs, ideas and opinions

Ethics in Psychological Research

Importance of Ethics:

Safety
Risk of physical/emotional harm
-Vulnerable groups
Children, elderly, disabled, retarded

Respect
-Sensitive issues

Validity of Data/Interpretion

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DEFINITION:- Moral principles and code of behavior that psychologists must abide by.

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Principles:
Confidentiality - Right to privacy.

Voluntary Participation - No coercion, no negative consequences for not taking part, no obligation.

Right to withdraw - Free to participate or withdraw at anytime

Informed consent - Informed prior to study about type and reasons of study, be aware of vulnerable groups.

***DECEPTION_Must have debriefing.

Debriefing - Participants informed of purpose at conclusion of experiment, and researcher needs to correct any mistaken attitudes or beliefs, provide any treatment to counter stress.

Accurate reporting - Must report all data. Cannot claim their hypothesis correct without data.

professional conduct - Must be professional, not personally involved, make sure colleagues agree to follow ethical guidelines

Measurement of assesing psychological responses

Objective Quantitative
Experimental
Quantitative Observational

Subjective Quantitative
Experimental
Quantitative Observational

Qualitative
Experimental
Qualitative

Experimental Design

Three type of research designs:

Experimental
Identify causation
Manipulates variables
Random assignment

Quantitative Observational
Treatment groups pre-existing
No random assignment, hence cannot identify causation
No manipulation, only observation to identify correlation of variables

Qualitative
Non-experimental, like quantitative observational only there is nothing quantitative about it, all interpretion/opinions

All three can collect two kinds of Data, Qualitative and Quantitative.

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Experimental Design;

influenced by extraneous variables,

• Participant variables
• situational variables
• experimenter variables
• placebo effect

Advantages

• More control over extraneous variables
• Can prove causation by manipulating IV to affect DV
• Can replicate experiment

Disadvantage

• May be unethical
• Not applicable to real world

Quantitative Observational

Advantages

• Allow investigation of variables otherwise too costly, unethical or impossible
• Some behavior can only be studied using a naturalistic setting

Disadvantages

• Cannot infer a strong cause/effect due to greater chance of other variables influencing results, due to lack of random assignment

Qualitative
Answers a question instead of testing a hypothesis/prediction
Investigates difference between groups and Association between variables

Advantages

• Investigate complex real world issues
• Open ended approach provides important information
  

Disadvantage

• Chance of experimenter bias

Focus Group Method

Advantage

• Richness of generated data
• Easy to organize
• Inexpensive
• Safety in numbers principle
• Can collect info from uneducated people

Disadvantages

• Lack of confidentiality
• Unease disagreeing with large groups
• Not representative of other groups

Delphi Technique

Advantages

• Does not require participants to be at the same place at the same time
• Maintains confidentiality
• Minimizes disadvantages associated with group decision making

Disadvantages

• Forces consensus
• No discussion
  

Representative Government

(indirect democracy)

Australian political system is one where people elect people to represent them, hence they are accountable and thus, a system of representative government.

Key Features:

1)Rule of law
Everyone equal, no one above law.

2)Universal Franchise
Everyone allowed to vote regardless of whatever shit, thus representatives accountable for everyone.

3)One Vote/One Value
Secrecy of ballot

4)Salaried MPs
So working class people can have a chance to run.

5)Parliamentary Privilege
Full and frank debate in parliament.

6)Right to protest, associate, freedom of association
Join political parties/ protest against.

7)Open parliamentary debates
Everyone can watch.

8)Separation of powers
Check and balance/ prevent abuse

Separation of Powers

-Governing Aus needs a big deal of power
-Divided LEJ
-Checks and balances each other
-Prevents abuse of power/dictatorship


Doctrine:
-LEJ separated and independent of each other without interference.
-Independence of judiciary from L & E, judges make decisions without influence.
-Reduces changes of AOP/dictatorship.

Overlaps:

L & J
Legislature makes new laws for establishment of new Courts and Judiciary interprets acts of Parliament.

E&J
Executive gives approval for new tribunals, appointment of judges and judiciary is called to interpret meaning of regulations made by E.

L&E
Legislature scrutinizes action of ministers during Parliamentary sessions, executive is held responsible for laws that are brought to parliament.

Division of Power

is the division of lawmaking power of the Parliament. The commonwealth and state parliaments can only make laws within their powers described in the constitution or the law would be declared 'Ultra Vires'. Essential to prevent overlapping of power.

Specific powers-

Exclusive Powers -
Only the Commonwealth can exercise, requires national approach.
e.g. National defense, external tariff, printing money

Concurrent Powers-
Commonwealth and State can exercise. Most areas in Section51.
e.g. Corporations, trade, taxation.

Prohibited Powers -
1)General Prohibited
2)Commonwealth Prohibited
3)State Prohibited

Residual Powers-
Powers not listed, retained by state.
e.g. Health transport, civil, criminal law, education. (Not listed in State Constitution)

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Exclusive Powers

• S52 Federal property & federal public service
• S71 Creation of Federal Courts
• S51(iv) borrowing money on public credit
• S51(vi) and S114 the provision of armed force
• S51(xii) and S115 currency, coinage and legal tender

Concurrent Powers

• S51(i) trade and commerce with other countries & among states
• S51(ii) taxation but not to discriminate between States or parts of States.
• S51(v) postal, telegraphic, telephonic and other like services.
• S51(xx) Corporation powers
• S51(xxi) Marriage

Prohibited Powers

• S116 Federal Parliament is prohibited to make laws about religion.
• S92 Trade between states is to be free, without tariff.
• S51(ii) taxation must not discriminate
• S51 (xxxi) cannot change the Constitution by legislation, only by referendum.

Residual Powers

• Criminal matters which are not Federal offences, civil matters, environment, women and children, housing, education, transport, public health.
  

Responsible Government

Legislative Scrutinizes Executive
1)Executive government is accountable.
2)Ensures they act in ways that are approved by Australians that voted them into power.
3)PM must pass supply bill.
4)'Question Time' - Parliament (L) can ask anything about the E's actions.


Government-General bound by Executive Advice
Real power lies in hands of PM, as long as :
1)PM commands majority of HOR
2)PM can pass supply bill
3)PM does things that are consistent with the constitution

Gough Whitlam 1975, failed to pass supply bill.


House Of Senate checks and balances House of Representatives
Senate(Upper house/House of review)

Section 53 - Senate doesn't have to pass HOR's supply bill(Hostile Senate), but by convention is expected.

Rule Of Law

Supremacy of the Constitution -
All entities - government, person, organizations - are bound by constitutional law.


Equality before the Law -
Racial Discrimination Act 1975(Cth)
Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (Cth)
Equal Opportunities Act 1984 (SA)


Natural Justice & Rights of Individuals -
Everyone retains their fundamental rights,

2 elements :
1)Independence of judiciary
2)Fair trial

Functions of Law

Social Cohesion : Bonds that bring people together in a diverse community.

[V]alues of Society - Proving laws which identify and reinforce the social, moral, economic, religious and political values of society. Eg : Doctrine of unite (women inferior), doctrine of terra nullius to take aboriginal land.

[A]cceptable Standards of Conduct - By setting ASOC and sanctions for unacceptable conduct. Impose legal consequences for breach.

[D]ispute Resolution Mechanisms - Establishing dispute settle mechanisms to resolve disputes between individuals, or between individuals and the State. (LEJ)

[E]volving Society Requires Changing Laws - Acknowledging the need to change laws in response to changing times and evolving societies.

EG : Technological changes - ATM fraud : Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935 amended - to make it unlawful to manipulate a machine for personal gain.

[R]ights of Individuals and Groups - Establishing laws that acknowledge and uphold the rights of individuals and groups, while promoting the welfare of society as a whole.

EG: Individual human rights (Marriage Act 1961: Freedom to choose own spouse)

Social Progress : The changing of society towards the ideal.

[E]ducation - Young australians to be educated as they are next workforce.

[Y]outh - Support the social and intellectual development of young Australians as they are future leaders.

[H]ealth -Preventation of contagious diseases, immunization jabs and etc.

[C]ommerce and Environment - Do not cause long term environmental harm.

Eg: fishing regulation