Social Cognition : Measurement of Attitudes, Ethics

2 types of test-
Self Report Measure

• Relies on participants being self aware and honest
• Uses rating scales, producing easier to manage data then open ended questions
• Problem : experimenter bias

Covert Measure

• Aims to get the 'real truth'

-Two approaches:

Observing people's behavior
(eg, nodding of heads to a statement in agreement that is being made)

Problem : Behavior doesn't always reflect attitude

Physiological measures
(heart rate, perspiration, pupil dilation [usage of EMG, EEG])
*EMG = electromyography = activation signal of muscles
*EEG = electroencephalography = brain activity

Non-obtrusive Measurement
(watching people who dunno they are watched)

-They are less likely to adopt behavior that is socially desirable/ won't fake shit
(putting cctv in retail shops)

* * *

Ethics
-Because we deal with humans and often use deception

Deception is necessary to overcome
-demand characteristics (placebo effect)
-social desirability

Debriefing's goals
-Opportunity to raise questions/concerns
-Explain/apologize for deception
-Discuss purpose and methods to enhance educational value of participating
-Detect and deal any negative/long-term effects

In Addition to the 5 ethical principles of research are:

1)Fairness
-Equal treatment without bias

2)Do no harm
Temporary discomfort > Long-term gain in society?

3)Respect
for people's rights and dignity(especially vulnerable groups)

Social Cognition : Social Issues

Stereotypes

Formation:
-Strongly held attitudes based on powerful schema
-Based on first impression of people of a certain group(first indian i saw touched my ass)
-Simplification through association

Implications:
-Schemas are continually reinforced in our environment - we notice information that confirms then then those that contradicts them
-Blinds us to individual differences
-Reflects our socio-cultural beliefs

Overcoming:
-Disconfirming information

• Bookkeeping
• Conversion
• Sub typing
  

Prejudice

Formation:
-Belief in one's own superiority
-Negative - hostile towards a group or person
-Positive - Undying support for own group

Discrimination
-Acts of verbal or physical violence towards an out-group

Social Cognition : Impression Management

Definition-
Process which people attempts to manage the impressions of themselves that they present to others.

• Done consciously and subconsciously
• Boosts effectiveness of persuasive communication
  

* * *

WHY?
the fuck we do it

1. Increase our appeal
2. Make others feel better around us (flatter, agree, favors and positive body language)
3. Enhance socially desirable behaviors

* * *

WAYS
to fucking do it

Non-verbal communication
-Body language

Verbal communication
-Talk cock, lie

Self-Handicapping
**Actions or thoughts that handicaps our performance in order to build an excuse for anticipated failure

Advantages!
-Protect self-esteem, self-image, public image
-Save face when lose, Win face when win
-Can be real or feigned

Disadvantages
-We may believe our excuses and perform less well, causing failure that we feared beforehand
-Lead others to make negative evaluations about our performance
-Can be dangerous if overboard(SMOKING, DRINKING, DRIVING LIKE F1)

Social Cognition : Social Comparison

Function-
1)Build self-image
2)Meet expectations and norms of society

• To rate ourselves with others when we are uncertain
• Usually compare to someone similar

* * *

Methods of Social Comparison

1)Upward Social Comparison
(Comparing with someone better)

Advantages
-Gives us an aim, improve ourselves
-Increase positive self regard; mastery

Disadvantages
-Makes us feel inadequate and disillusioned about our abilities
-Discouraging if standard isn't achievable

2)Downward Social Comparisons
(Comparing with someone who sucks)

Advantages
-Assessment of our position in a community
-presents us in positive light; making us feel good
-give self-esteem a boost

Disadvantages
Use common sense plz

3)Similar Social Comparisons
(Compare perceptions/attitude with similar people)

To assure ourselves that we fit social norms and fit in with our peers.

Social Cognition : Impressions, Impression Formation

Definition -
Formulation of tentative conceptions about others' emotions, motivations and personalities by gathering and interpreting situational and behavioral cues.

* * *

Impression Formation
1) Non-verbal communication

• physical characteristics
• face problem/expression
• eye contact
• posture, gait, movement
• open/closed posture
• gestures
• proxemics

2) Verbal communication
Two levels of assessment are involved:

Semantic - content/ what shit they talking
Expressive - tone, volume/ how the fuck they talking

3)Paralinguistic Cues
Variations in speech

• intonation, volume, pitch
• word emphasis
• pauses/hesitation

'Who are you?'
'WHO...are...YOU!!!!??'

* * *

Impression Formation : Principles

1)Formed through direct/indirect contact
2)Evaluated from limited external information
3)Impressions partly based on stereotypes (schema)
4)First impressions initially based on outward appearance
5)Primary Effect - First impressions form a base for subsequent judgements
6)3 Levels of judgements : physical, socio-cultural, psychological

Social Cognition : Persuasion

Theory of planned behavior
Justifies why you don't do what you're supposed to do but does something else you want to do instead.

* * *

Personality!
High self-monitors behave in a less attitude consistent matter.
Low self-monitors behave more consistently.

* * *

Behavioral Influence on Attitude;

Cognitive dissonance
Attitude -> Behavior or Behavior -> Attitude
because they are different, and this theory suggests we want them to be the consistent. Inconsistencies lead to an 'uncomfortable state of heightened arousal' - Cognitive Dissonance

May lead to change in behavior, attitudinal change or people may reduce their dissonance via external justifications.

Self-perception theory
behavior -> Attitude
An outsider's view of ourselves.
We gain an understanding about ourselves by observing how we behave and infer.

* * *

Both explains how inconsistencies between behavior and attitudes

-Cognitive Dissonance
Attitude and behavior at odds leading to discomfort

-Self-perception Theory
Attitudes are shaped by how we act

* * *

Bi-relational link:

works both ways, ie we play chess so we believe it will improve our performance, hence a belief that chess will enhance school performance.

* * *

Two paths of Persuasion

Central Route - requires a great deal of central thought and depends on quality of arguments. Works only on the significant and credibility and presentation of the argument is essential.

Peripheral Route - Less obvious way, using subtle inferences via famous/glamorous people.

Factors affecting persuasion :

1)Source
Expert / Non-expert
Attractive/ Unattractice
Rate of Speech

2)Message
Evoke emotions?
Subliminal?

3)Audience
Those who enjoy thinking like sound and logical arguments.
THose more image conscious would be more affected via the peripheral route.

Social Cognition : Factors Affecting Attitude-Behavior Link

1)Attitude Strength
Direct or indirect?

2)Accessibility
How easily it comes to mind?

3)Specificity
General or specific concept?

4)Ambivalence
Mixed feelings?

5)Social situation
Affects us freely expressing our true attitudes

Social Cognition : Attitude Formation

Factors influencing attitude:

1)Mere/indirect exposure
Formed in a less personal way. (Advertisers)
Too much exposure can have negative effect
Must initially be neutral/not overexposed

2)Direct experience
Actually experiencing something, forming attitude towards it.
Very powerful.
Important in traumatic/frightening experiences.
Often becomes strongly held, affects behavior
More likely to seek out information that confirms these attitudes
Resistant to change

3)Learning
Learned via association, reward/punishment or imitation.

Association:
Associating object with positive or negative feelings
Powerful impact on formation of stereotypes
Researchers suggest repeated association of neutral with positive/negative leads to same feelings

Reward/Punishment:
Adopting attitudes to gain favor

Imitation(modeling):
Observing and copying those we admire

Social Cognition : Function of Attitudes

1)Adaptive Function
-adapt to environment
-maximize rewards/ behave to reach goals
-minimize punishment by avoiding behaviors which dont reach goals

2)Self-expressive Function
-Give meaning to life
-Tell others about who we are
-Part of self-concept

3)Ego-defensive Function
-Protects self-esteem
-Shields us from negative things in our lives

4)Knowledge Function
-Allows us to make our world more predictable and familiar by organizing perceptions/beliefs about the social world.

Social Cognition

Attitude
learnt evaluative reactions

Positive, negative and ambivalent attitudes.

Affective Component-
how we feel that reflects our feelings

Behavioral Component-
Action

Cognitive Component-
Beliefs, ideas and opinions

Ethics in Psychological Research

Importance of Ethics:

Safety
Risk of physical/emotional harm
-Vulnerable groups
Children, elderly, disabled, retarded

Respect
-Sensitive issues

Validity of Data/Interpretion

* * *

DEFINITION:- Moral principles and code of behavior that psychologists must abide by.

* * *

Principles:
Confidentiality - Right to privacy.

Voluntary Participation - No coercion, no negative consequences for not taking part, no obligation.

Right to withdraw - Free to participate or withdraw at anytime

Informed consent - Informed prior to study about type and reasons of study, be aware of vulnerable groups.

***DECEPTION_Must have debriefing.

Debriefing - Participants informed of purpose at conclusion of experiment, and researcher needs to correct any mistaken attitudes or beliefs, provide any treatment to counter stress.

Accurate reporting - Must report all data. Cannot claim their hypothesis correct without data.

professional conduct - Must be professional, not personally involved, make sure colleagues agree to follow ethical guidelines

Measurement of assesing psychological responses

Objective Quantitative
Experimental
Quantitative Observational

Subjective Quantitative
Experimental
Quantitative Observational

Qualitative
Experimental
Qualitative

Experimental Design

Three type of research designs:

Experimental
Identify causation
Manipulates variables
Random assignment

Quantitative Observational
Treatment groups pre-existing
No random assignment, hence cannot identify causation
No manipulation, only observation to identify correlation of variables

Qualitative
Non-experimental, like quantitative observational only there is nothing quantitative about it, all interpretion/opinions

All three can collect two kinds of Data, Qualitative and Quantitative.

* * *

Experimental Design;

influenced by extraneous variables,

• Participant variables
• situational variables
• experimenter variables
• placebo effect

Advantages

• More control over extraneous variables
• Can prove causation by manipulating IV to affect DV
• Can replicate experiment

Disadvantage

• May be unethical
• Not applicable to real world

Quantitative Observational

Advantages

• Allow investigation of variables otherwise too costly, unethical or impossible
• Some behavior can only be studied using a naturalistic setting

Disadvantages

• Cannot infer a strong cause/effect due to greater chance of other variables influencing results, due to lack of random assignment

Qualitative
Answers a question instead of testing a hypothesis/prediction
Investigates difference between groups and Association between variables

Advantages

• Investigate complex real world issues
• Open ended approach provides important information
  

Disadvantage

• Chance of experimenter bias

Focus Group Method

Advantage

• Richness of generated data
• Easy to organize
• Inexpensive
• Safety in numbers principle
• Can collect info from uneducated people

Disadvantages

• Lack of confidentiality
• Unease disagreeing with large groups
• Not representative of other groups

Delphi Technique

Advantages

• Does not require participants to be at the same place at the same time
• Maintains confidentiality
• Minimizes disadvantages associated with group decision making

Disadvantages

• Forces consensus
• No discussion